YOUR FORUM FOR PLAY, SPORTS UND LEISURE AREAS
Major parts of the human sensory system and physical motor skills are not sufficiently or are inappropriately utilised by those living in urban environments. Evolution has provided humans with a body that has a structure and functions in a way adapted to a lifestyle that it is only possible to realise to a limited extent in the situations in which most people live today (cf. e.g. Lagerström 2007, Kellert & Wilson, 1993). Not only such physical aspects are affected, but also other human attributes, such as cognition, emotion and interaction (cf. e.g. Petzold 1971, 4; 2014) Offering people the opportunity to take exercise in surroundings that are as near natural as possible has wide-ranging potential; it can improve individual well-being and prevent (and even help treat) various disorders. Bowler et al. (2010) undertook a meta-analysis and report as a result that exercise in natural environments seems to offer several advantages over exercise in artificial surroundings From the point of view of exercise physiology, this would also provide for systematic training of the body as a whole through variable and diverse forms of physical exercise.
Although not everyone enjoys exercising outdoors in the fresh air it has been demonstrated that their surroundings have an objectively detectable effect on humans. Natural environments seem to provide more motivation to take exercise (cf. Gibson 1979, Lippens & Nagel, 2009c, p. 318) than do standardised surroundings. The integration of natural stimuli in urban exercise landscapes is of benefit to both physical and psychological health.
The surroundings influence the quality of exercise
Their surroundings have fundamental effects on how people exercise; the space itself thus promotes the development of the corresponding coordination capacities. Motor abilities and sensory system are interdependent. The quality of motor skills that determine bodily movements can never be better than that of the sensory system that underlies our perception - the two are interrelated. The interplay between perception and movement produces more or less suitably functional types of movement - in other words, more or less healthy forms of physical activity.
As living beings, humans profit from enjoyable experiences that activate their senses. Variations and differences in sensory input make it possible for humans to develop a more extensive range of forms of perception and movement. Any discrepancies between the expected and the actual sensory stimuli help us to learn how to negotiate dynamic environments. Abilities grow with manifold exposure to multisensory stimulation. The better an individual is aware of the surface on which they stand, the better they are able to move on it.
In our urbanised habitats we routinely encounter level pavements and standardised stairways. Except in the case of individuals with physical disabilities, spaces that are made all too easily accessible can actually have a degenerative effect. The long term effect of the restriction for work purposes to movement in standardised environments is that individuals fail to develop suitable and creative ways of dealing with unexpected physical situations. Where the environment is insufficiently complex, the options for activities are limited and physical abilities consequently atrophy.
The nerves in the soles of the feet experience largely unvaried stimuli - even these are muted to some extent by shoes - when in contact with uniform flat surfaces. Level surfaces also provide similarly limited stimuli to the vestibular apparatus.
When it comes to physical movement, there are deficits in terms of extent of exertion (most people take too little exercise) and its quality. Certain bodily structures, such as the tendon insertions, can be excessively stressed by walking on hard surfaces while other abilities remain underused (walking backwards or movement on unsteady surfaces). As the functions and structures of the body are mutually dependent, this affects physical status.
Children need to be exposed to a wide range of experiences to enable them to develop effective coordination. Ideally, they will acquire the capacity for a large spectrum of variable movement activities as they grow up. But in adulthood, there can be a decline in this functional variability. Humans tend to prefer the tried-and-tested because the familiar does not require them to expend more energy than needed. At the same time, confrontation with the familiar limits the capacity for action because there is no requirement to evolve alternative forms of activity. With increasing age, explorative movement and behaviour become no less important. The countless challenges offered by daily life and physical exercise can help us learn how to adapt to unusual situations, something that is far more relevant than learning how to meet requirements.
Sensomotor challenges offered by naturally varying surfaces
In naturally varying surroundings, the challenges and demand imposed on movement also vary (Lippens & Nagel 2009c, p. 318, Adler 2011). Light, temperature, moisture content and vegetation determine the nature of surfaces here and their intrinsic dynamics tax both perception and movement. Naturally diversified surfaces can exhibit features such as convexity, concavity, roughness, irregularity, instability, unsteadiness and can be plastic or elastic. On moving over such surfaces, the places where feet can be placed tend to be limited (by slopes and stones, for example) while the changing light conditions can make movement more difficult. These complications vary continuously and require flexibility and adaptation with every step. Although the character of a surface can be to some extent gauged on the basis of prior experience, this always remains new and unpredictable (Fjørtoft, 2004, p. 23). Natural surfaces are 'unusual' because they require continuing adaptation and the habitual stereotypical movement patterns cannot be employed.
Depending on situation, movement on an uneven surface requires awareness of the expropriospecific distance from surface to foot and well as of the propiospecific distance in other dimensions, such as that between the feet and the hips. Both these need to be modified to the character and incline of the surface to achieve successful forward motion (cf. Lee, 2005). On level, solid surfaces (such as smooth asphalt), one of these dimensions remains constant across the distance being travelled and only the position and dynamics of the person vary while movement on natural surfaces also requires the person to assess their potential dynamics. Other muscle groups than those used to move in uniform surroundings need to be employed to master steep ascents and downslopes.
In addition to the effect on health of exercise, movement on variable surfaces also contributes to the improvement of coordination-related abilities, such as perception, reaction, orientation and the sense of equilibrium. On first accessing irregular surfaces, rapid and appropriate adjustment of balance is required. Stability when standing and moving is thus improved and uniform exertion of the active and passive locomotor system is ensured due to non-stereotypical activity. This is not only attributable to increased demands being placed on the support muscles close to joints - in both the back and torso - but also to greater stimulation of the soles of the feet. Exercise like this can help prevent spraining of the knee and ankle joints, reduce the risk of falling and even back pain. The postular muscles are exerted in particular in situations in which the two feet are required to negotiate different surfaces or the ground surface is small or unstable. Not only is this important for the prevention of injury during sports activities but also in elderly persons as this will help them cope better on a day-to-day basis with a deteriorating sense of balance (cf. Horak et al. 1990, Adler, 2011). Exposure to multisensory stimuli in everyone will reduce the potential for accidents. An improved ability to differentiate during movement will lower the risk of accident and of falling (Adler 2011). Acquired inappropriate automatic activity patterns can be dismantled with the help of suitable training (Nagel 1997, 2014).
The design of accessible green spaces
The creation of living environments that not only make healthy forms of activity possible but also ensure that these become part of individuals' routines should be made an essential component of urban planning guidelines.
The principle of the provision of barrier-free access should not be employed across the board to persons without physical disabilities; these should also have the option of visiting sites with attractive and challenging surface conditions. The corresponding exercise spaces must be made available on a daily basis for non-organised activities and need to be appropriately maintained (Hahn & Craythorn, 1994).
In view of the benefits outlined above, it is advisable to provide naturally varying surroundings not just in the context of exercise and training but also in connection with the sort of routes used on a daily basis. Cycling or walking somewhere regularly is not only good for the environment but also has an advantageous effect in terms of health economics. Investment in attractive, readily accessible parks and green spaces (also with cycleways) in urban areas could provide for a significant reduction in healthcare costs, as an example from Glasgow (2013) demonstrates.
Contrasting challenges should be on offer in such accessible green spaces that conform to the need to provide diversity. The terrain here needs to be designed so that it exhibits as much variation as possible with regard to form, surfacing and consistency, although it should not be such that it is associated with a risk of accidental injury.
For the type of training that promotes health, such as walking or jogging, soft and flexible surfaces are best (like the ground found in wooded areas). The dynamics of the environment need to be preserved even in the face of a high level of use. To provide for the optimal sensomotoric training, a natural degree of instability, plasticity and elasticity are desirable. It would thus be advisable to make more available the sort of surfaces used for example for jogging tracks that are made of wood chips or sand. These remain variable even when frequently used and are relatively easy to maintain.
Ideally, these should be provided in the form of circular tracks, pathways or fitness trails that include inclines, curves and also obstacles to promote the use of sensory and motor abilities, if possible in connection with progressive movement. Public meeting areas that offer attractive facilities for amusing exercise are an important tool for encouraging physical activity in groups that are otherwise resistant to the standard techniques promoting this. In view of the increasing spread of pathologies that are caused by a lack of exercise, it is essential to create a versatile range of amenities that reflect the actual scope of individual interests and needs. Children who live near green spaces are less likely to exhibit a pathological increase in BMI in later life (Bell et al. 2008). The extent of accessible green space in the vicinity can have an influence on the level of physical activity (Ellaway et al. 2005, Sugiyama et al, 2010) and thus has a marked effect on health.
When surrounded by nature, individuals experience consistent, multisensory influences combined with psychological recuperation that has positive effects on motivation and can thus promote beneficial changes to exercise behaviour over the long term.
Activity instructors who are to be employed in parks and public green spaces need to be trained not only in the theoretical aspects of the synergism of exercise and sojourn in natural surroundings but also in a wide range of practical options that can be employed in very different settings while taking into account the need to preserve the environment. Sport clubs with their qualified trainers could play an important role and would further benefit by gaining access to public exercise spaces.
Image: Playparc
A bibliography and a detailed handout entitled 'Sport und Bewegung in Parks und urbanen Räumen aus bewegungswissenschaftlicher Perspektive' (Adler et al, 2015) are available for both landscape architects (volume I) and activity instructors (volume II, 2016 "Besser draußen trainieren?'). To order, go tohenrike.adler@gmx.de.
